Integrated Theory and Practice: Milestones in Print Production

Ten Key Developments in the Production of Work:

1445          Johannes Guttenberg's printing press was invented in 1440 and in 1445, he produced the first printed book in Europe; the Gutenberg Bible. This led the way for many more printing machines to be invented with similar techniques, using movable type. The efficiency of using a machine in which only the type is changed, meant that books could be printed far more quickly than the traditional handwritten ways, allowing for there to be more produced, and therefore being cheaper and more widely available to the masses. 

1796-9     Alois Senefelder invented Lithography. This was the first new printing technology since the invention of relief printing in the fifteenth century. It is based on the chemical repellence of water and oil. The design is drawn or printed with a greasy ink or crayons onto prepared limestone. The stone is then moistened with water, which is accepted where the design is not drawn (as the water is repelled by the oils). An oily ink is applied with a roller and is only taken on where the drawing appears and is repelled by the wet areas. The stone is then pressed to paper to produce a print. This technology allowed for a level surface to be used for printing, so it could be re-used, and was much quicker than relief carvings. 

1798        A paper-making machine was invented by Nicolas-Louis Roberts. Since the invention of paper in China during AD 105, the amounts of paper available would be limited. By speeding up the process of manufacturing it, then it could become more efficiently produced and therefore cheaper and available to more people. 

1861        The first colour photograph was taken by Clerk Maxwell. This paved the way for design to be far more exciting and attractive with the addition of colour in photography, for realistic, life-like tones. 

1881        The halftone process was invented by Frederick Ives. This is a process by which the tones of a photographic image are represented by tiny dots of different sizes. The subject is photographed through a cross-line screen to produce a half-tone negative image, which is used to make a printing plate. A picture printed from this plate is made up of dots in proportion to the size of the light passing through the negative. This was the main factor in the expansion of illustrated newspapers and magazines during 19th century which lead to the high quality of newer productions of printed image. 

1886        The Linotype machine was invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler. This machine produces lines of metal type made from words all put together in a mould from molten metal, created when the operator types out on the keyboard the letters and words which are required. These lines of type are then used in the printing press. These lines are hard wearing and can be used to produce many copies. 

1920s      The Aniline process was developed for printing on non-absorbent stock. This meant that printers could print on materials such as cellophane and glossy papers for high quality finishes and a whole new approach to design and print production with interesting, tactile materials. 

1987       Adobe Illustrator was launched.

1990       Adobe Photoshop launched.

1999       Adobe InDesign and Press Ready launched. 

Computer software allows us to create high quality, high resolution designs ready for print and to be creative with production of imagery and type. The ease and speed of computers has also given many more people the ready skills in order to produce designs efficiently and cost effectively.

Integrated Theory and Practice: Gutenberg Press

In 1436, Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and businessman from Mainz in Germany, invented the printing press. It had replaceable and movable wooden or metal letters. It was developed using the technology of a screw-type wine press and was operated by hand. Ink was rolled over the block letters which were held in a wooden frame, then it was pressed against a sheet of paper transferring the ink as printed type. He finished the printing press in 1440 and printed the first book in Europe, the 42-line (lines per page) Gutenberg Bible in 1445. 

This image of a press reproduction from the era shows the structure of the screw based machine. Below the printing plate was a sliding bench holding the inked metal type and a with a sheet of paper held in place to the surface. The bench slid into position below, the screw was turned and then the plate lowered to give pressure to the paper against the rows of type quickly and evenly. When the screw was turned in the opposite direction, the plate was raised. The bench was pulled back and the paper removed. This was repeated to produce many printed sheets efficiently.

Integrated Theory and Practice: Photography, Emotion and Text

Donna Ferrato

In order to investigate whether photographs can really capture emotion and what is happening, I flicked through a book of iconic photography and picked out a picture without looking at the description. I chose this image as it seemed very emotional and immediate.

My first interpretation was that the woman is angry at the photographer, her arm raised as if about to push her away. Her facial expression seems almost pleading as if she has had enough of being photographed or just wants to be alone. Her raised eyebrows and down turned mouth make her look as if she is crying as she speaks. 

I then began to read the description. This image is from Ferrato's book entitled 'Living with the enemy' 1991. Without reading any further on, I decided this could fit with my initial ideas in that the book could be about celebrities and the paparazzi, as if it is like living with photographers by being followed all the time. After reading on i discovered that it is about domestic violence against women in the USA. This adds new meaning to the photograph in the sense that the woman could be turning round to see someone behind her, the photographer, thinking it was her husband and is trying to defend herself. This would also explain her expression, being distraught and fearful. The rest of the text explains how the photographer came upon this topic by chance when she was staying with the family. She heard noises one night followed by the sound of blows and shouting and found the wife, Lisa, being attacked by her husband. This photo was taken moments after the event. 

Donna Ferrato's book contains case studies like this, accompanied by harsh monochrome pictures and texts and interviews. The relationships between text and photography is evidently critical in portraying a sense of the event in order for it to not be misinterpreted. 

Integrated Theory and Practice: Images and Words

In Magritte's pièce 'Les Mots et Les Images, based on children learning to read books, he painted pictures of object and labelled them with no relating words; a shoe labelled la lune (moon), an egg labelled l'acacia (a type of tree or shrub) a hat labelled la neige (snow), a glass labelled l'Orage (storm), a candle labelled le plafond (ceiling), and a hammer with the label la desert (desert). He notes that ‘everything tends to make us think that there is very little connection between an object and what represents it’ and that ‘an object never fulfils the same function’. He was influenced by the Surrealist movement and his art began to play with ideas linking language, representation and art. Most infamous is his painting of a pipe with the caption 'this is not a pipe'. This emphasises that the painting is not actually a real pipe but merely a representation of one, breaking the connection between language and objects. 

Magritte’s word-pictures provide a commentary on language and art; just as words are symbols, so are pictures and they need not necessarily resemble what they represent. Representation can be random  and anything can be used as a sign. 

"We usually attribute resemblance to things which may or may not have a common nature. We say ‘as alike as two peas in a pod’ and we say, just as easily, that the fake resembles the authentic. This so-called resemblance consists of relations of comparison, whose similarities are perceived by the mind when it examines, evaluates and composes. Likeness is not concerned with ‘common sense’ or with defying it, but only with spontaneously assembling shapes from the world of appearance in an order given by inspiration." – René Magritte 

Magritte suggests here that an image may look like an object, but in art it is not necessarily meant to be represent it or even have anything to do with it, but instead be a symbol for something, perhaps an emotion, memory or comparison based on metaphors or similarities it may have connected with it. 

In magritte's work, the strangeness and the startling effect of juxtaposing random words with images, is linked with the play of 'undecidability in representation', in that to put a word and an image together can lead us to question their connection and wether there really is one at all. 

The language barrier of the text being in french seems to add even more mystery as those who do not understand french will not have the immediate reaction of those who do. They may simply assume that the words are the french for those which match the image. This puts into question, again, how text can be non-representative of an image just as much as we believe it is the only one which matches it. 

This could mean, essentially, that words are merely labels we give to things for communication purposes, but representation is all in the mind of the artist, and the connection can then be made by anyone else, meaning we could represent anything with any object or word through any connection through metaphor or simile. 

This idea reminded me of an installation piece I once saw in the Tate gallery by Michael Craig-Martin; An Oak tree from 1973.

The display caption from April 2005:

"While this appears to be a glass of water on a shelf, the artist states that it is in fact an oak tree. Craig-Martin;s assertion addresses fundamental questions about what we understand to be art and our faith in the power of the artist. The work can be seen as an exploration of Marcel Duchamp's declaration that any existing object can be declared a work of art. In his accompanying text, Craig-Martin provides the questions as well as the answers, allowing the simultaneous expression of scepticism and the belief regarding the transformative power of art."

It is this 'transformative power of art' which draws on the same idea of the relationship between language and object as in Magritte's piece. 

Integrated Theory and Practice: Mind Mapping and organisation

In order to design an effective solution for what we wish to communicate, we have to explore the content of our design problem. 

Mind mapping allows us to put our thoughts down on paper and make connections to new ideas by exploring many different aspects of the subject matter. For example, for my health campaign brief about drinking water, I began by researching dehydration and the health benefits of drinking water. I also put down all my ideas about water as the subject so that I could get an idea of what imagery I could use and would be memorable in a campaign. 

I decided to explore my ideas on how the campaign could appeal to children as the target audience by making water seem more fun so that they would take an interest in their health. I continued my research into the subject so that I could define a target audience. I noted how I could inform the elderly about dehydration and the tone of voice to use for different audiences, and where the information could be so that it reaches the public. 

Throughout my project i returned again and again to idea of the mind map in order to 'go back to the drawing board' for new ideas and approaches to my final outcome. 

Integrated Theory and Practice: Creative Environments

The workplace, for a creative person, needs to be stimulating and full of inspiration for their next project. Designers often bring in personal touches which show their own interests and visual style which will help give them motivation to create something themselves which will then in turn inspire others.

Illustrator Jamie Hewlett's studio (above) has been labelled, pointing out various items which inspire him. 

Mad Magazine- an american magazine begun in 1950s America 'staffed by artists who used to work on ad campaigns such as Coca Cola and who relished being subversive and taking the mickey out of American culture'.

You can tell from this that he likes a bit of humour in his work and admires those who strive to be original and a bit controversial.

Nature- He has a model of a raven on his desk which reminds him of horror movies and the fact that he finds them hardest to draw. 

He challenges his own drawing skills by having this reminder beside him, tormenting him, while triggering memories which can inspire his work. 

Historical artefacts- he has an African mask and a French fireman's helmet. 

Being both interesting pieces of work in themselves and also historical references, these objects can remind him of cultural aspects of his work, as well as historical interests to spark his imagination in story telling and character design. 

The work of other creatives- he is inspired by the work of Quentin Blake and Ronald Searle. He has books containing examples of their style which he aspires to.

The Google offices seem like a very exciting place to work. If we work in an environment which allows us to have fun, our imagination is also allowed to be set free, which is very important for generating interesting ideas.